About This Research
The hemp plant contains more than 100 natural compounds called cannabinoids. Only a handful have been studied in depth, and scientists have studied them in three ways: in people, in animals, and in the laboratory using cells and tissue. Each kind of study adds a different piece to the picture.
The main cannabinoid in hemp is CBD, and it is by far the most studied. Five others, CBG, CBC, CBN, THCv and CBDa, are called minor cannabinoids and have been studied more than other minor cannabinoids. That’s because the plant makes them in smaller amounts, not because they matter less. Research on them is newer, but it is growing quickly.
Here’s what you’ll find on this page. The first 4 articles, complete with links to the entire publications, are meta-analyses. A meta-analysis a a summary of other related scientific research articles. The table below them summarizes how each cannabinoid works on a cellular level, with an expanation of some of the terms following. As mentioned in the first paragraph, the information contained in the table is from studies with people, in animals, and in the laboratory, and the minor cannabinoids effects from the table are from all those studies. A quick-reference source button is right underneath the table. Additional references for the information in the table follow. Due to the high number of references, they are broken down by topic to make it easier to find references about topics that are meaningful to you.
Systematic Review: CBD Dosing Across Conditions (2023)
British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology
A comprehensive review in Journal of Clinical Medicine Research evaluated CBD doses ranging from <1 to 50 mg/kg/day, covering epilepsy, anxiety, pain, and sleep disorders. It concluded that most effective therapeutic doses fall between 300–600 mg/day, while wellness use may still be beneficial at lower exposures.
Translational Investigation of the Therapeutic Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD): Toward a New Age (2018)
Frontiers in Immunology
This review highlights CBD's potential as an anxiolytic and antipsychotic agent, suggesting its use in various psychiatric disorders.
Scope & Purpose Examines how various cannabis compounds (phytocannabinoids, terpenes, etc.) exert anti-inflammatory effects. Looks at molecular mechanisms, relevant receptors, cytokines, signaling pathways, and combination/synergy effects.
Receptors & Pathways Involved The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a major modulator. Compounds act via CB1 and CB2 receptors. Other targets include: transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, G protein-coupled receptors (GPRs), adenosine receptors, toll-like receptors (TLRs), nuclear receptors (like PPAR), etc. Key pro-inflammatory cytokines reduced include TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, etc. Processes like oxidative stress, COX-2, iNOS expression, NF-κB activation are discussed.
Preclinical & Clinical Anti-Inflammatory Review (2022)
Frontiers in Pharmacology
A broad review summarized CBD’s immunomodulatory effects, confirming it lowers pro-inflammatory cytokines both in vitro and in vivo. Evidence includes reductions in skin inflammatory mediators and intestinal inflammation—supporting CBD's potential role in treating inflammatory disorders.
Phytocannabinoids: Exploring Pharmacological Profiles and Their Impact on Therapeutical Use (2024)
International Journal of Molecular Sciences
Anti-Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Effects: A study published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences discusses the pharmacological profiles of cannabinoids, including CBC, highlighting its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Research indicates that CBG binds to various targets in the endocannabinoid system, exhibiting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, which may be beneficial in neuroinflammatory disorders.
| Cannabinoid | Observations | Effects |
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| CannabidiolCBD |
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| CannabigerolCBG |
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| CannabichromeneCBC |
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| CannabinolCBN |
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| TetrahydrocannabivarinTHCv |
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| Cannabidiolic acidCBDa |
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Sources
- Thomas A, et al. Br J Pharmacol 146 (2005): 917–926.
- Pertwee RG. Br J Pharmacol 153 (2008): 199–215.
- Laprairie RB, et al. Br J Pharmacol 172 (2015): 4790–4805.
- Russo EB, et al. Neurochem Res 30 (2005): 1037–1043.
- Cascio MG, et al. Br J Pharmacol 159 (2010): 129–141.
- Navarro G, et al. Front Pharmacol 9 (2018): 632.
- Udoh M, et al. Br J Pharmacol 176 (2019): 4537–4547.
- De Petrocellis L, et al. Br J Pharmacol 163 (2011): 1479–1494.
- Rhee MH, et al. J Med Chem 40 (1997): 3228–3233.
- Appendino G, et al. J Nat Prod 71 (2008): 1427–1430.
- Liang Z, et al. Free Radic Biol Med 180 (2022): 33–51.
- Takeda S, et al. Drug Metab Dispos 36 (2008): 1917–1921.
- Bolognini D, et al. Br J Pharmacol 168 (2013): 1456–1470.
- Anderson LL, et al. J Nat Prod 82 (2019): 3047–3055.
The Big Words in the Table Above
Receptors: the body’s locks
Your cells are covered in tiny locks called receptors. When the right key fits into a lock, it tells the cell to do something, like calm down, send a pain signal or fight swelling. Your body makes its own keys, and plant cannabinoids can fit some of the same locks.
CB1 and CB2
CB1 and CB2 are the two main cannabinoid locks.
CB1 is found mostly in the brain and nerves. It helps control mood, memory, hunger and how you feel pain.
CB2 is found mostly in the immune system, the body’s defense team. It helps control swelling and how the body reacts to injury.
Agonist and antagonist
These words describe what a key does once it’s in the lock.
An agonist turns the lock and switches something on.
A partial agonist turns the lock only part of the way, so the signal is weaker.
An antagonist fits into the lock but doesn’t turn it. It blocks the lock so other keys can’t get in.
For example, at low doses THCv acts like an antagonist at CB1. It sits in the lock and blocks it, which may be one reason it seems to lower appetite instead of raising it.
TRP channels: the body’s sensors
TRP channels (say “trip”) are tiny gates on nerve cells that sense things like heat, cold and stinging. When a gate opens, the nerve sends a message to the brain, such as “hot!” or “ouch!” Some cannabinoids can open these gates. When a gate is opened over and over, it can get tired and stop sending as many signals. Scientists think this may be one way cannabinoids affect pain.
TRPV1 is the heat sensor. It’s the same gate that makes chili peppers feel hot in your mouth.
TRPV2 senses very strong heat. It also helps immune cells do their jobs.
TRPA1 is the stinging sensor. It’s the gate that makes wasabi and mustard sting your nose. It also reacts to things that irritate or inflame the body.
COX-2
COX-2 is an enzyme, a tiny worker that helps cells make things. When you get hurt, COX-2 helps make chemicals that cause swelling, redness and pain. Medicines like ibuprofen work by slowing COX-2 down. In lab studies, CBDa also slows down COX-2. That’s one reason scientists are studying it for swelling.
Categoric References Below
1. Energy and Focus, ref: THCv, CBG
1-1. Abioye, Amos, et al. "Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV): A Commentary on Potential Therapeutic Benefit for the Management of Obesity and Diabetes." Journal of Cannabis Research 2.1 (2020): 6.
1-2. Rzepa, Ewelina, Luke Tudge, and Ciara McCabe. "The CB1 Neutral Antagonist Tetrahydrocannabivarin Reduces Default Mode Network and Increases Executive Control Network Resting State Functional Connectivity in Healthy Volunteers." International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 19.2 (2016): pyv092.
1-3. Cuttler, Carrie, et al. "Acute Effects of Cannabigerol on Anxiety, Stress, and Mood: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover, Field Trial." Scientific Reports 14.1 (2024): 16163.
1-4. Russo, Ethan B., et al. "Survey of Patients Employing Cannabigerol-Predominant Cannabis Preparations: Perceived Medical Effects, Adverse Events, and Withdrawal Symptoms." Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 7.5 (2022): 706-716.
1-5. Jadoon, Khalid A., et al. "Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol and Tetrahydrocannabivarin on Glycemic and Lipid Parameters in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel Group Pilot Study." Diabetes Care 39.10 (2016): 1777-1786.
2. Appetite, ref: THCv, CBG
2-1. Abioye et al. (2020). See 1-1.
2-2. Tudge, Luke, et al. "Neural Effects of Cannabinoid CB1 Neutral Antagonist Tetrahydrocannabivarin on Food Reward and Aversion in Healthy Volunteers." International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 18.6 (2015): pyu094.
2-3. Smith, Gregory L. "Weight Loss and Therapeutic Metabolic Effects of Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV)-Infused Mucoadhesive Strips." Cannabis 8.1 (2025). doi:10.26828/cannabis/2024/000206.
2-4. Jadoon et al. (2016). See 1-5.
3. Chronic Pain and Hard-to-Treat Conditions, ref: CBD, CBG, CBC, CBDa, CBN
3-1. Giorgi, Valeria, et al. "Cannabis and Autoimmunity: Possible Mechanisms of Action." ImmunoTargets and Therapy 10 (2021): 261-271.
3-2. Holloman, Bryan Latrell, Mitzi Nagarkatti, and Prakash Nagarkatti. "Epigenetic Regulation of Cannabinoid-Mediated Attenuation of Inflammation and Its Impact on the Use of Cannabinoids to Treat Autoimmune Diseases." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22.14 (2021): 7302.
3-3. Sklenárová, Michaela, et al. "Signaling Pathways of Inflammation in CIA Model of Rheumatoid Arthritis Regulated by Cannabichromene." Journal of Cannabis Research 8 (2026): 100.
3-4. Romano, Barbara, et al. "The Cannabinoid TRPA1 Agonist Cannabichromene Inhibits Nitric Oxide Production in Macrophages and Ameliorates Murine Colitis." British Journal of Pharmacology 169.1 (2013): 213-229.
3-5. Sagy, Iftach, et al. "Safety and Efficacy of Medical Cannabis in Fibromyalgia." Journal of Clinical Medicine 8.6 (2019): 807.
3-6. Hershkovich, Oded, et al. "The Role of Cannabis in Treatment-Resistant Fibromyalgia Women." Pain Practice 23.2 (2023): 180-184.
3-7. Henshaw, Frances R., et al. "The Effects of Cannabinoids on Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines: A Systematic Review of In Vivo Studies." Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 6.3 (2021): 177-195.
3-8. Marinho, Alexandre Magno da Nóbrega, and Ricardo Wagner Gomes da Silva. "Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Cannabinoids." BrJP 6.Suppl 1 (2023): 31-37.
3-9. Ghasemi Gojani, Esmaeel, et al. "Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Minor Cannabinoids CBC, THCV, and CBN in Human Macrophages." Molecules 28.18 (2023): 6487.
3-10. Hong, M., et al. "In Vitro and In Vivo Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Cannabichromene Isolated from Hemp." Plants 12.23 (2023): 3966.
3-11. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2017.
3-12. Bilbao, Ainhoa, and Rainer Spanagel. "Medical Cannabinoids: A Pharmacology-Based Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis for All Relevant Medical Indications." BMC Medicine 20.1 (2022): 259.
3-13. Choi, Janice, et al. "The Use of Cannabinoids in the Treatment of Peripheral Neuropathy and Neuropathic Pain: A Systematic Review." The Journal of Hand Surgery 50.8 (2025): 954-965.
4. Migraine Pain, ref: CBD, CBG, CBDa
4-1. Russo, Ethan B. "Clinical Endocannabinoid Deficiency Reconsidered: Current Research Supports the Theory in Migraine, Fibromyalgia, Irritable Bowel, and Other Treatment-Resistant Syndromes." Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 1.1 (2016): 154-165.
4-2. Mechtler, Laszlo L., Fran M. Gengo, and Vincent H. Bargnes. "Cannabis and Migraine: It's Complicated." Current Pain and Headache Reports 25.3 (2021): 16.
5. Neurodivergence, ref: CBD, CBG, CBC
5-1. Dawson, David A., and Clare P. Persad. "Targeting the Endocannabinoid System in the Treatment of ADHD." Genetics and Molecular Medicine 3.1 (2021): 1-7.
5-2. Cooper, Ruth E., et al. "Cannabinoids in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Randomised-Controlled Trial." European Neuropsychopharmacology 27.8 (2017): 795-808.
5-3. Karhson, Debra S., et al. "Plasma Anandamide Concentrations Are Lower in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder." Molecular Autism 9.1 (2018): 18.
5-4. Aran, Adi, et al. "Lower Circulating Endocannabinoid Levels in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder." Molecular Autism 10.1 (2019): 2.
5-5. Fletcher, Sarah, et al. "Medicinal Cannabis in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Scoping Review." Child: Care, Health and Development 48.1 (2022): 33-44.
5-6. Hacohen, Micha, et al. "Children and Adolescents with ASD Treated with CBD-Rich Cannabis Exhibit Significant Improvements Particularly in Social Symptoms: An Open Label Study." Translational Psychiatry 12.1 (2022): 375.
5-7. Siani-Rose, Michael, et al. "Cannabis-Responsive Biomarkers: A Pharmacometabolomics-Based Application to Evaluate the Impact of Medical Cannabis Treatment on Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder." Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 8.1 (2023): 126-137.
6. Stress, Mood, and Sleep, ref: CBD, CBN, CBG, CBDa
6-1. Han, Kevin, et al. "Therapeutic Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD) in Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." Psychiatry Research 339 (2024): 116049.
6-2. Cuttler et al. (2024). See 1-3.
6-3. Martin, Erin L., et al. "Antidepressant and Anxiolytic Effects of Medicinal Cannabis Use in an Observational Trial." Frontiers in Psychiatry 12 (2021): 729800.
6-4. Reuveni, Noa, et al. "The Antidepressant and Anxiolytic Effects of Cannabinoids in Chronic Unpredictable Stress: A Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." Translational Psychiatry 12.1 (2022): 217.
6-5. Hasbi, Ahmed, Bertha K. Madras, and Susan R. George. "Endocannabinoid System and Exogenous Cannabinoids in Depression and Anxiety: A Review." Brain Sciences 13.2 (2023): 325.
6-6. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). See 3-11.
6-7. Bonn-Miller, Marcel O., et al. "A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study of the Safety and Effects of CBN with and without CBD on Sleep Quality." Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 32.3 (2024): 277.
6-8. Nacasch, Nitsa, Chen Avni, and Paz Toren. "Medical Cannabis for Treatment-Resistant Combat PTSD." Frontiers in Psychiatry 13 (2023): 1014630.
7. Women's Health, ref: CBD
7-1. Sinclair, Justin, et al. "Effects of Cannabis Ingestion on Endometriosis-Associated Pelvic Pain and Related Symptoms." PLoS One 16.10 (2021): e0258940.
7-2. Dahlgren, M. Kathryn, et al. "A Survey-Based, Quasi-Experimental Study Assessing a High-Cannabidiol Suppository for Menstrual-Related Pain and Discomfort." npj Women's Health 2.1 (2024): 29.
7-3. Dahlgren, M. Kathryn, et al. "A Survey of Medical Cannabis Use During Perimenopause and Postmenopause." Menopause (2022). doi:10.1097/GME.0000000000002018.
7-4. Babyn, Katherine, et al. "Cannabis Use for Menopause in Women Aged 35 and Over: A Cross-Sectional Survey on Usage Patterns and Perceptions in Alberta, Canada." BMJ Open 13.6 (2023): e069197.
8. Brain and Nerve Signaling, ref: CBD
8-1. Ong, Marjorie Jia Yi, et al. "The Use of Cannabidiol as Adjunctive Therapy in Adult Patients with Drug-Resistant Epilepsy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." Therapeutic Advances in Neurological Disorders 18 (2025): 17562864251313914.
8-2. da Silva Rodrigues, Douglas, Adria Santos Bastos Soares, and Claudia Dizioli Franco Bueno. "The Use of Cannabinoids in Children with Epilepsy: A Systematic Review." Epilepsy & Behavior 145 (2023): 109330.
8-3. AlHabil, Yazan, et al. "Assessing the Role of Cannabis in Managing Spasticity in Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." Clinical Therapeutics 48.1 (2026): 13-21.
8-4. Nielsen, Suzanne, et al. "Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Spasticity." Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 61.6 (2019): 631-638.
8-5. Szejko, Natalia, et al. "Cannabis-Based Medicine in Treatment of Patients with Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome." Neurologia i Neurochirurgia Polska 56.1 (2022): 28-38.
8-6. Palazzo, Enza, et al. "Cannabidiol in Traumatic Brain Injury." Diagnosis and Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury, Academic Press, 2022, pp. 463-475.
8-7. Dong, Shiying, et al. "Cannabidiol Alleviates Neurological Deficits after Traumatic Brain Injury by Improving Intracranial Lymphatic Drainage." Journal of Neurotrauma 41.15-16 (2024): e2009-e2025.
9. Cancer, ref: CBD, CBG, CBDa
9-1. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). See 3-11.
9-2. Malhotra, Pratibha, Ilaria Casari, and Marco Falasca. "Therapeutic Potential of Cannabinoids in Combination Cancer Therapy." Advances in Biological Regulation 79 (2021): 100774.
9-3. Hinz, Burkhard, and Robert Ramer. "Anti-Tumour Actions of Cannabinoids." British Journal of Pharmacology 176.10 (2019): 1384-1394.
9-4. Mashabela, Manamele Dannies, and Abidemi Paul Kappo. "Anti-Cancer and Anti-Proliferative Potential of Cannabidiol: A Cellular and Molecular Perspective." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25.11 (2024): 5659.
10. Dementia, ref: CBD
10-1. Shelef, Assaf, et al. "Safety and Efficacy of Medical Cannabis Oil for Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia: An Open Label, Add-On, Pilot Study." Journal of Alzheimer's Disease 51.1 (2016): 15-19.
10-2. Broers, Barbara, and Federica Bianchi. "Cannabinoids for Behavioral Symptoms in Dementia: An Overview." Pharmacopsychiatry 57.3 (2024): 160-168.
10-3. Alexandri, Foteini, et al. "The Effect of Cannabidiol 3% on Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Dementia: Six-Month Follow-Up." Clinical Gerontologist 47.5 (2024): 800-807.
11. Gastrointestinal Disorders, ref: CBD, CBC, CBG
11-1. Crowley, Kijan, et al. "Effects of Cannabinoids on Intestinal Motility, Barrier Permeability, and Therapeutic Potential in Gastrointestinal Diseases." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25.12 (2024): 6682.
11-2. Kumar, Rajesh, Shruti Singh, and Vikas Maharshi. "Therapeutic Effects of Cannabinoids on Ulcerative Colitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials." Journal of Health Science and Medical Research 42.5 (2024): 20241041.
11-3. De Filippis, Daniele, et al. "Cannabidiol Reduces Intestinal Inflammation through the Control of Neuroimmune Axis." PLoS One 6.12 (2011): e28159.
11-4. Romano et al. (2013). See 3-4.
11-5. Izzo, Angelo A., et al. "Inhibitory Effect of Cannabichromene, a Major Non-Psychotropic Cannabinoid Extracted from Cannabis sativa, on Inflammation-Induced Hypermotility in Mice." British Journal of Pharmacology 166.4 (2012): 1444-1460.
11-6. Borrelli, Francesca, et al. "Beneficial Effect of the Non-Psychotropic Plant Cannabinoid Cannabigerol on Experimental Inflammatory Bowel Disease." Biochemical Pharmacology 85.9 (2013): 1306-1316.
12. Nausea / Vomiting, ref: CBDa, CBD
12-1. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). See 3-11.
12-2. Rock, Erin M., et al. "Therapeutic Potential of Cannabidiol, Cannabidiolic Acid, and Cannabidiolic Acid Methyl Ester as Treatments for Nausea and Vomiting." Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 6.4 (2021): 266-274.
13. Opioid / Substance Dependence, ref: CBD
13-1. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). See 3-11.
13-2. Shafie, Mahan, et al. "The Potential Use of Cannabidiol in the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder: A Systematic Review." Addiction Biology 30.5 (2025): e70047.
14. Skin Disorders: CBD, CBC, CBG, CBDa
14-1. Kuzumi, Ai, et al. "Cannabinoids for the Treatment of Autoimmune and Inflammatory Skin Diseases: A Systematic Review." Experimental Dermatology 33.3 (2024): e15064.
14-2. Makhakhe, Lehlohonolo. "Topical Cannabidiol (CBD) in Skin Pathology: A Comprehensive Review and Prospects for New Therapeutic Opportunities." South African Family Practice 64.1 (2022): a5493.
14-3. Oláh, Attila, et al. "Differential Effectiveness of Selected Non-Psychotropic Phytocannabinoids on Human Sebocyte Functions Implicates Their Introduction in Dry/Seborrhoeic Skin and Acne Treatment." Experimental Dermatology 25.9 (2016): 701-707.
14-4. Kim, K. C., et al. "Cannabichromene as a Novel Inhibitor of Th2 Cytokine and JAK/STAT Pathway Activation in Atopic Dermatitis Models." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 25.24 (2024): 13539.
14-5. Tortolani, D., et al. "Rare Phytocannabinoids Exert Anti-Inflammatory Effects on Human Keratinocytes via the Endocannabinoid System and MAPK Signaling Pathway." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24.3 (2023): 2721.
